British Art Snots Are Working in the Dark Analysis
DOI The aesthetics of mural have always been finely calibrated in response to prevailing ideological concerns of the day. When eighteenth-century grand tourists embraced the Claudean picturesque—past purchasing former master paintings in Italy, commissioning manor views from Richard Wilson, or sweeping away an English village to accommodate a new ornamental lake for the mural garden—they engaged with a Whig politics that offered an imagery of stasis and permanence in a world marked by conflict and change. In a fast-secularizing age, Ruskin and the Victorians scanned the botanical minutiae of flora, the geology of mountains, and the meteorology of the skies in pursuit of religious meaning, somewhen discovering simply the "storm cloud of the nineteenth century", a "dense manufacturing mist" that provided an allegory of environmental despoliation and moral collapse.ane Art history, also, stands within rather than higher up prevailing ideologies. Kenneth Clark's Landscape into Art, published in 1949, breathed a pessimism tinged with patrician regret at the loss of an idyll, destroyed by "all the scientific discipline and bureaucracy in the earth, all the bombs and concentration camps." A farther menace was populism. "Almost every Englishman," Clark declares, "if asked what he meant by beauty, would begin to describe a landscape." A combination of this "passive consent of uninformed opinion," the "extremely specialized and esoteric work" of contemporary artists, and the "new religion" of science left landscape art, essentially, dead, with Clark every bit the sole mourner at its funeral.two A sense of melancholy as well attaches to studies of landscape painting, bolstered past Paul Mellon's patronage, during the 1950s and 1960s. Ellis Waterhouse, writing in 1953, establish in Gainsborough'due south The Harvest Wagon (ca. 1767) "one of the supreme masterpieces of British painting", notable for "musical rhythm, kept exquisitely under control". The "single figures, both of people and horses, combine a genial naturalness and a perfection of grace", characteristics implicitly lacking in austerity United kingdom of the early 1950s, and besides from the contemporary art of the period (Fig. i).3 In the same historical moment, only from a different political position, Francis Donald Klingender offered a contrasting socialist vision of landscape imagery from the dawn of modernity, presciently drawing, within the purview of fine art history, on a broad range of print culture in Art and the Industrial Revolution. 4
DOI Figure 1. Digital image courtesy of Bridgeman Images.
Thomas Gainsborough, The Harvest Railroad vehicle, ca. 1767, oil on sail, 120.5 x 144.7 cm. Collection of The Henry Barber Trust, The Barber Found of Fine Arts, University of Birmingham (46.8).
DOI The study of mural painting, and more broadly of the landscape itself, experienced a radical renewal towards the end of the Cold War, in the years post-obit the intellectual convulsions of 1968 and the social and economic upheavals of the 1970s. A new historiography was inaugurated by key works such every bit John Barrell'due south The Dark Side of the Mural, Ann Bermingham's Mural and Ideology and the essays in The Iconography of Landscape, edited by Stephen Daniels and Denis Cosgrove.v Foundational documents of the social history of art, these methodologically eclectic works were broadly Marxian, cartoon, respectively, on literary studies, psychoanalytic theory, and human geography. Together, they constituted a breakthrough in the analysis of mural imagery. The sense of a rising historiographical tide was confirmed by the appearance of administrative monographic accounts of Richard Wilson by David Solkin and Constable by Michael Rosenthal, a plethora of works on Turner, and Andrew Hemingway's exhaustive study of the Norwich School.6 These interventions were formative for future studies, but their focus, as in classic works of social history such as E.P. Thompson's Making of the English Working Class, was resolutely national; indeed, national identity—the Englishness of English art—was a significant subtext of a body of work implicitly challenging the monopoly position hitherto held by scholars of French nineteenth-century painting.7 In the Thatcher era of the 1980s, a plough towards the history of consumption, rooted in the work of J.H. Plumb, John Brewer, and Neil McKendrick, shifted interest away from questions of labour and land as a site of product and social feel, but generated a richer understanding of the display, sale, and distribution of landscape paintings as objects in a market, the office of institutions, and new forms of art writing and criticism. 8 The magisterial exhibition Fine art on the Line, curated by David Solkin, placed mural at the heart of the spectacle of the fine art market—"Landscape-o-rama" in Ann Bermingham's term.9 Another exhibition project based on extensive enquiry, Sensation and Sensibility: Viewing Gainsborough's Cottage Door, curated by Bermingham, drew together fine art and new popular media, such as de Loutherbourg's Eidophusikon, which was an endeavour to present a landscape scenario in animated, mechanical display.10 Related research projects accept explored the history of the panorama, invented in Scotland in 1787, only soon adopted as a global technology.eleven Only what of landscape at present? Since the 1990s, the inescapable context of neoliberal economic and political globalization determined that themes of trans-regional exchange in earlier periods would preoccupy art historians—a group also late simply enthusiastically grappling with postmodern theory in multifarious forms. Daniels'southward pioneering Fields of Vision (1991) began to challenge the national epitome by exploring parallels and relationships between British and American mural painting and print culture.12 New Atlanticist perspectives on political and intellectual history opened upward the possibility of a "new British history", whose implications for art historical report have only slowly been realized. More urgently, the legacy of rethinking of cultural studies by Stuart Hall and the "Birmingham School", led to an increasing focus on questions of race and representation, on questions of diasporic identity and the cultural legacies of slavery in the Caribbean and United kingdom. Paul Gilroy'south formulation of the "black Atlantic" was decisive in challenging the primacy of the nation every bit a unit of analysis, opening up a model of transnational movement that, albeit derived from the unique and incomparable trauma of chattel slavery, still opened up brilliant possibilities for rethinking the history of art more than generally.xiii The national essentialism of post-state of war scholarship was assailed by concepts of ambivalence and hybridity, developed in post-colonial theory, notably in the work of Homi Bhabha; contact zones and the meeting and intertwining of cultures, analysed offset in literary studies and anthropology, took on a new importance, with pregnant implications for the study of landscape imagery and for the canon of art history.14 Representations of landscapes of slavery, in which conventions of the picturesque and the sublime were oftentimes deployed in an attempt to present the plantation in the most favourable light, have been the subject of contempo attention. Jill Casid'south Sowing Empire presciently drew attention to the relationship between the arrangement of the plantation and the conventions of representation; in Slavery, Carbohydrate and the Civilization of Refinement, Kay Dian Kriz navigated the links between the economics of the slave trade and the polite social club, revealing fault lines that saw metropolitan visual satires offering burlesque images of planters in the Caribbean equally debased and vulgar; while the elegant lithographs of Joseph Bartholomew Kidd, at the moment of slavery's demise in 1838, attempted to "detoxify" the sugar islands through artful renderings of the plantation landscape. Fine art and Emancipation in Jamaica, an exhibition held at the Yale Eye for British Fine art in 2007, attempted to incorporate mural imagery into a more general history of representations of slavery, utilizing Joseph Roach'southward formulation of "circum-Atlantic exchange" as a unmarried "oceanic interculture".fifteen From the mid-eighteenth century, the Caribbean was a zone of constant reinvention, a nodal point of global trade, including the trade in man bodies, the site of pioneering, large-scale industrial organization, and a place where forced migration gave birth to new populations and hybrid cultural forms, specially in functioning and the visual arts. Information technology likewise constituted a series of landscapes, both in actuality and in representation.16 Early indications of the directions mural scholarship would take in the new millennium were seen in summer 2001, in a conference, Fine art and the British Empire, which brought together scholars from across the earth to begin, for the first fourth dimension, to formulate a larger historical enquiry project virtually fine art and empire, in which landscape would play a central role. The premise of the conference, and the collection of essays derived from it, was that the concept of empire (hitherto largely shunned past art historians) "belongs at the middle, rather than in the margins, of the history of British art."17 William Blake, inevitably, long ago floated a more than radical proposition: "Empire follows Fine art, & non vice versa every bit Englishmen suppose."18 Perhaps, then, art belongs at the heart of the history of empire. Information technology was articulate to the organizers that this project could only be successful if it embraced a multiplicity of viewpoints from across the sometime territories of empire rather than asserting a metropolitan narrative. The briefing was, after all, supported by Yale Academy, a quintessential product of the colonies, whose founding donor, Elihu Yale, was an East India Company official in Madras, who had been built-in in New Haven, Connecticut.19 And though, in an event deliciously laced with irony, the delegates in 2001 enjoyed a memorable reception in the Durbar Court of the Foreign Office, seemingly re-enacting the paying of homage past vassal states to the imperial overlord, the briefing provided a highly productive meeting of scholars and curators from across the world. As the twenty-first century dawned, the long-running debates engendered by Edward Said's Orientalism, the landscape imagery of David Roberts, William Holman Hunt, Edward Lear and, especially, John Frederic Lewis, come up to the fore.twenty Moreover, the work of British artists in Republic of india, hitherto the subject of a connoisseurial literature redolent of colonialist attitudes, became a subject area of new literature inflected with a new urgency by the emergence of mail service-colonial theory.21 The about significant response to British landscape aesthetics in colonial India is Romita Ray'south Under the Banyan Tree, a study alert to the poetics, also as the politics of representations under colonialism.22 A larger literature has engaged with landscape photography in Republic of india from the tardily 1850s onwards, in which conventions of the picturesque and the panoramic, established earlier and disseminated through impress media, play a meaning role.23 New work on landscape painting in Australia, Aotearoa—New Zealand, and Southward Africa has revealed both the global reach of landscape conventions and formulae, and the impediments offered to the totalizing "colonial picturesque" past local geographies and by what Julia Lum, deploying in relation to landscape painting a concept from the anthropologist Bronwen Douglas, has described as "ethnic countersigns".24 The British artist John Glover in Tasmania, the artist-ethnographer George French Angas in New Zealand, the painter-explorer Thomas Baines in S Africa, among endless others, encountered limit-cases where topography and culture exerted a powerful counterforce, limiting the decision-making power of the purple landscape idiom, and generating troubling, but historical important and aesthetically powerful landscapes for which new interpretative strategies are demanded. The work of contemporary indigenous artists increasingly offers disquisitional reflections on the continuing ability of landscape as a contested space open to multiple interpretations, and as a site of historical and gimmicky violence. Lisa Reihana's in Pursuit of Venus [infected], (2015–2017), on display at the time of publication in the exhibition Oceania at the Royal Academy of Arts in London, responds to the historical provocation of Les Sauvages de la Mer Pacifique, a breathtaking coloured wallpaper in twenty panels, created in 1804 by Joseph Dufour on the ground of imagery from the Pacific voyages of James Cook (Les Voyages du Capitaine Cook was proposed every bit an alternative championship for the paper) (Fig. 2).25 Reihana's panoramic video spanning 26 metres embraces the "monarch of all I survey" viewpoint of the painted panoramas of the late eighteenth century, merely inserts speaking, singing, and moving figures to competition the silent, stereotypical representations of indigenous people in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century sources. Reihana offers fractional insights into indigenous cosmologies that contest the Enlightenment's insistence on global normativities, insisting on the validity of traditional knowledges and the limitations of Western perception. "Both the wallpaper and the video are set in a utopian Tahitian landscape," explains Reihana, "notwithstanding while Dufour's piece of work models Enlightenment beliefs of harmony among flesh, in Pursuit of Venus [infected] includes encounters between Europeans and Polynesians which acknowledge the complexities of cultural identities and inter-cultural contact in the historic period of Empire."26 It is a landscape of misunderstanding, a contact zone of misconception, which is both a landscape of possibility, a space of resistance, and potentially the terrain of terrible violence.
DOI While some recent writers have followed Kenneth Clark in suggesting that there was a "decease of landscape" at the terminate of the nineteenth century, the eclipse of traditional media such as large-scale exhibition paintings of mural subjects was accompanied by a proliferation of landscape imagery beyond media, notably photography and, above all, film.27 Continuities abound. The "panning shots" of the motion motion picture manufacture—call back of the widescreen imagery of the American wilderness ubiquitous in Westerns from John Ford's Stagecoach (1939) to Clint Eastwood'due south Unforgiven (1992), or the sweeping desert scenes in David Lean'southward Lawrence of Arabia (1962)—derive directly from the painted panorama patented past Robert Barker in 1787, mediated through Turner and American painters such every bit Frederic Edwin Church and Thomas Moran. In addition to its presence across popular civilisation, landscape seems accept returned to prominence in the fine arts in Britain at moments of enforced insularity. The neo-Romantic painters of the 1930s—Paul Nash, John Piper, and Graham Sutherland—seem to have moved towards landscape painting as a redemptive oasis from totalitarian encroachment, enhanced by layer upon layer of comforting vernacular inscription, from standing stones to Georgian stables. British variants of Abstract Expressionism, such every bit powerful canvases of Peter Lanyon, always seem to allude to land, sea, and sky; artists inclined towards abstraction gathered at St Ives, for the same reason that earlier colonies had formed at Cullercoats, Staithes, and Newlyn, considering of the magnificence of the surrounding scenery. Land and mural are in one case again at the center of contemporary political debates in the era of Donald Trump's presidency in the United states of america. As all but a tiny cadre of extractive capitalists at present admit, climate change and global warming are perhaps the most pressing bug facing civilization: landscapes worldwide are visibly changing and the emergence of what might be described as a planetary consciousness—with the exception of the crass and recidivistic leadership of the U.s.a.—seems to exist taking identify on the terrain of landscape. Histories of landscape painting are, increasingly, conscious not merely of the trans-regional and the inter- and intra-imperial, but as well of the global in a existent and firsthand sense. In the "anthropocene", the geological era in which the furnishings of human life have decisively changed the planet'due south environment, climate is a matter of survival with profound consequences for aesthetics (David Matless recently coined the term "Anthroposcenic" to illuminate this conjunction).28 The results of man-fabricated environmental change preoccupy, indeed haunt, the projects of scholars of landscape today, just every bit increasing numbers of gimmicky artists are registering in their work, with mounting horror, the accelerated charge per unit of climate alter and despoliation. This new awareness of landscape every bit the ground upon which macro-historical forces play out their dramas loops us back historically to the moment of British landscape painting's triumph in the age of Romanticism. If we can now identify the early nineteenth century as the origin betoken of the Anthropocene, then this new era in global history was ushered in by the landscapes of J.M.W. Turner and John Martin, whose comprehend of the apocalyptic sublime has never seemed more prescient. The mural painter Thomas Cole, born in the overcrowded, polluted industrial city of Bolton, Lancashire, in 1801, met both Turner and Martin in London in 1829–1830. He wrote to a patron in 1832 to describe a projected bicycle of mural paintings, conceived in London, that he would proper name The Form of Empire. Utilizing terms that resonate with mod ecological thinking, he proposed to paint: The malign event of humanity on the landscape was the central premise of Cole'south artistic projection: he was a pioneering artist of the Anthropocene, proleptic in his melancholy sense of impending catastrophe. An exhibition of his work held in 2018, exactly 200 years afterwards he and his family, economic migrants, landed on the shores of the young United States, revealed Cole to be far from beingness the provincial, nationalistic American figure—"the father of the Hudson River Schoolhouse"—of the established historiography. Rather, horrified past the emergence of global capitalism and empire, avid in its advocacy of protection for the American wilderness, predictive of environmental catastrophe, his vision seems, uncannily, to speak of "landscape now" (Fig. iii).30 the History of a Natural Scene, every bit well equally an Epitome of Man; showing the natural changes of Mural, and those effected by Homo in his progress from Atrocity to Civilization—to the state of Luxury—to the barbarous state or states of Destruction etc.29
DOI Figure 3. Digital image courtesy of Bridgeman Images.
Thomas Cole, The Course of Empire: Destruction, 1836, oil on canvas, 99.7 x 161.3 cm. Drove of New-York Historical Lodge (1858.four).
About the author
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Tim Barringer is Paul Mellon Professor and Chair of the Department of the History of Art at Yale University. His books include Reading the Pre-Raphaelites (1999; new edition, 2012) and Men at Work: Art and Labour in Victorian Britain (2005). With colleagues, he co-edited Frederic Leighton: Antiquity, Renaissance, Modernity (1998), Colonialism and the Object (1998), Art and the British Empire (2007), Writing the Pre-Raphaelites (2009), and Victorian Jamaica (2018). He was co-curator of American Sublime (2002), Art and Emancipation in Jamaica (2007), Opulence and Feet (2007), Earlier and After Modernism (2010), Pre-Raphaelites: Victorian Avant-Garde (2012), and Pastures Green and Dark, Satanic Mills (2013); he is co-curator, with Elizabeth Kornhauser, of Thomas Cole's Journeying: Atlantic Crossings (Metropolitan Museum of Fine art, New York and National Gallery, London, 2018), Picturesque and Sublime (2018), and Radical Victorians (2019). His is finishing a book Broken Pastoral: Art and Music in Britain, Gothic Revival to Punk Rock.
Footnotes
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John Ruskin, "The Storm-Deject of the Nineteenth Century: Lecture 1", Works of John Ruskin, edited by E.T. Cook and Alexander Wedderburn (London: George Allen, 1908), Vol. 34, 37.
1 -
Kenneth Clark, Landscape into Art, new edn. (London: John Murray, 1976), 230, 241.
2 -
Ellis Waterhouse, Painting in Britain 1530–1790, 5th edn, edited by Michael Kitson (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1994 [1953]), 260.
3 -
Francis Donald Klingender, Fine art and the Industrial Revolution (London: Noel Carrington, 1947).
4 -
John Barrell, The Dark Side of the Mural: The Rural Poor in English Painting, 1730–1840 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Printing, 1980); Ann Bermingham, Landscape and Credo: The English Rustic Tradition, 1740–1860 (London: Thames and Hudson, 1987); and The Iconography of Landscape: Essays on the Symbolic Representation, Design, and Utilize of Past Environments, edited past Denis Cosgrove and Stephen Daniels (Cambridge: Cambridge University Printing, 1988).
5 -
David H. Solkin, Richard Wilson: The Landscape of Reaction (London: Tate Gallery, 1982); Michael Rosenthal, Constable: The Painter and his Landscape (New Oasis, CT: Yale University Press, 1983); on creative identity and mural with item reference to Turner, come across Kay Dian Kriz, The Idea of the English Mural Painter: Genius as Alibi in the Early on Nineteenth-Century (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1997); Andrew Hemingway, Landscape Imagery and Urban Culture in Early Nineteenth-Century Uk (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).
6 -
Nikolaus Pevsner, The Englishness of English Art (London: Architectural Press, 1956); E.P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (London: V. Gollancz, 1963). A sophisticated meditation on this tradition can be plant in David Peters Corbett, Ysanne Holt, and Fiona Russell (eds), The Geographies of Englishness: Landscape and the National Past, 1880–1940 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2002).
vii -
Neil McKendrick, John Brewer, and J.H. Plumb, The Nativity of a Consumer Society: The Commercialization of Eighteenth-Century England (London: Europa, 1982). For Plumb'due south contribution to art history, meet J.H. Plumb, The Pursuit of Happiness: A View of Life in Georgian England. An Exhibition Selected from the Paul Mellon Collection (New Haven, CT: Yale Centre for British Art, 1977).
viii -
David H. Solkin (ed.), Art on the Line: The Regal Academy Exhibitions at Somerset Business firm, 1780–1836 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Printing, 2001). See, in particular, Ann Bermingham, "Landscape-o-Rama: The Exhibition Mural at Somerset House and the Rise of Pop Entertainments", in David H. Solkin (ed.), Fine art on the Line: The Royal Academy Exhibitions at Somerset House, 1780–1836 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Printing, 2001), 127–144.
9 -
Ann Bermingham (ed.), Awareness & Sensibility: Viewing Gainsborough'south Cottage Door (New Haven, CT: Yale University Printing, 2005).
x -
See Stephan Oettermann, The Panorama: History of a Mass Medium, translated by Deborah Lucas Schneider (New York: Zone Books, 1997); Denise Blake Oleksijczuk, The Beginning Panoramas: Visions of British Imperialism (Minneapolis, MN : Academy of Minnesota Printing, 2011); and Katie Trumpener and Tim Barringer (eds), On the Viewing Platform: The Panorama from Canvass to Screen (New Haven, CT: Yale Academy Press, forthcoming 2019).
eleven -
American landscape painting has been dominated by an exceptionalist approach, articulated through factitious entities such as the "Hudson River Schoolhouse" and "Luminism". See Tim Barringer, "National Myths and the Historiography of Nineteenth-Century American Mural Painting: A European Perspective", in Peter J. Schneemann and Thomas Schmutz (eds), Masterplan: Konstruktion und Dokumentation amerikanischer Kunstgeschichten, Neue Berner Schriften zur Kunst (Bern: Peter Lang, 2002), 127–154. For a recent attempt to write an alternative narrative, see Tim Barringer, Gillian Forrester, Sophie Lynford, Jennifer Raab, and Nicholas Robbins, Picturesque and Sublime: Thomas Cole'southward Trans-Atlantic Inheritance (Catskill, New York: Thomas Cole National Historic Site; New Haven, CT: in association with Yale University Press, 2018).
12 -
Paul Gilroy, The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993); and Tim Barringer, "A White Atlantic? The Idea of American Art in Nineteenth-Century Britain", xix: Interdisciplinary Studies in the Long Nineteenth Century 9, nine November 2009, doi:10.16995/ntn.507.
13 -
Come across, for example, Mary Louise Pratt, Imperial Optics: Travel Writing and Transculturation (London: Routledge, 1992).
xiv -
Joseph Roach, Cities of the Expressionless: Circum-Atlantic Operation (New York: Columbia University Printing, 1996).
15 -
Geoff Quilley, "Pastoral Plantations: The Slave Trade and the Representation of British Colonial Landscape in the Eighteenth Century", in Geoff Quilley and Kay Dian Kriz (eds), An Economy of Colour: Visual Culture and the Atlantic World, 1660–1830 (Manchester: Manchester University Printing, 2003), 106–128; and Tim Barringer, "Land, Labor, Landscape: Views of the Plantation in Victorian Jamaica", in Tim Barringer and Wayne Modest (eds), Victorian Jamaica (Durham, NC: Duke Academy Press, 2018), 281–321.
16 -
Tim Barringer, Geoff Quilley and Douglas Fordham, "Introduction" in Art and the British Empire, Tim Barringer, Geoff Quilley and Douglas Fordham (eds.) (Manchester: Manchester Academy Press, 2007), 3.
17 -
"William Blake'due south Annotations to Reynolds's Discourses", Joshua Reynolds, Discourses on Art, edited by Robert R. Wark (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1975), 285.
18 -
Alison Smith, David Blayney Brown, and Ballad Jacobi, Artist and Empire: Facing Britain's Royal Past (London: Tate, 2015).
xix -
Come across Emily M. Weeks, Cultures Crossed: John Frederick Lewis and the Art of Orientalism (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2014); Wendy K.K. Shaw, "Betwixt the Sublime and the Picturesque: Mourning Modernization and the Product of Orientalist Landscape in Thomas Allom and Reverend Robert Walsh's Constantinople and the Scenery of the Seven Churches of Asia Modest (c. 1839)", in Zeynep Inankur, Mary Roberts, and Reina Lewis (eds), The Poetics and Politics of Place: Ottoman Istanbul and British Orientalism (Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, 2010), 95–103. For an important comparative perspective, run into, in the same volume, Semra Germaner, "The Interpretation of Pictorial Space in Nineteenth-Century Ottoman Landscape Painting", in Zeynep Inankur, Mary Roberts, and Reina Lewis (eds), The Poetics and Politics of Place: Ottoman Istanbul and British Orientalism (Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, 2010).
20 -
The flavour of before scholarship may be discerned from Mildred Archer and Ronald Lightbown, India Observed: India every bit viewed by British Artists, 1760–1860 (London: Victoria and Albert Museum, 1982). Archer and her hubby William George Archer were ceremonious servants in the Raj from 1934 to 1948, before taking up positions in, respectively, the Bharat Office Library and the Victoria and Albert Museum. Their scholarship, which remains of fundamental importance to the field, is inevitably inflected by the attitudes of the colonial governing class, even as they shared socialist convictions and a belief in the project of Indian independence. For important works inflected past post-colonial theory inter alia, Richard Davis, Lives of Indian Images (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999); Arindam Dutta, The Bureaucracy of Dazzler: Design in the Historic period of its Global Reproducibility (Cambridge, MA: CRC Printing, 2006); Natasha Eaton, Mimesis across Empires: Artworks and Networks in India, 1765–1860 (Durham, NC: Knuckles University Printing, 2013) and Color, Art and Empire: Visual Civilization and the Nomadism of Representation (London: I.B. Tauris, 2013); Tapati Guha-Thakurta, The Making of a "New" Indian Art: Artists, Aesthetics and Nationalism in Bengal, 1850–1920 (Cambridge Academy Printing: Cambridge, 1992) and Monuments, Objects, Histories [electronic resource]: Institutions of Art in Colonial and Postcolonial Republic of india (New York: Columbia University Press, 2004); Saloni Mathur, India past Pattern: Colonial History and Cultural Display (Berkeley, CA: Academy of California Printing, 2007); Christopher Pinney, Camera Indica (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1988).
21 -
See Romita Ray, Under the Banyan Tree: Relocating the Picturesque in British India (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2013).
22 -
See, for example, Vidya Dehejia (ed.), Republic of india through the Lens: Photography 1840–1911 (Washington, DC: Freer Gallery of Fine art and Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution, 2000); and Maria Antonella Pelizzari, Traces of Republic of india: Photography, Architecture, and the Politics of Representation, 1850–1900 (Montréal Canadian Centre for Architecture; New Haven, CT: Yale Center for British Art: Yale University Press, 2003).
23 -
Julia Lum, "Fine art at the Coming together Places of United kingdom and Oceania, 1778–1848", PhD dissertation, Yale University, 2016. Encounter also Julia Lum'south commodity, "Fire-stick Picturesque: Colonial Landscape Art in Tasmania", in the current edition of BAS.
24 -
I am grateful to Julia Lum for brining Reihana's piece of work to my attention and offering a compelling reading of it in "Fine art at the Coming together Places of U.k. and Oceania, 1778–1848". See besides Peter Brunt, Nicholas Thomas, Noelle Kahanu, Sean Mallon, Emmanuel Kasarhérou, Michael Mel, and Anne Salmond, Oceania (London: Royal Academy of Arts, 2018), 31-three, 256-9, 307-8.
25 -
Rhana Devenport, "An Interview with Lisa Reihana", in Lisa Reihana: In Pursuit of Venus (Auckland: Auckland Fine art Gallery Toi o Tāmaki, 2015), 6.
26 -
Maggie Cao, The End of Landscape in Nineteenth-Century America (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2018).
27 -
For a recent discussion of this topic, see Clive Hamilton, Christophe Bonneuil, and François Gemenne, (eds), The Anthropocene and the Global Ecology Crisis: Rethinking Modernity in a New Epoch (Abingdon: Routledge, 2015). Three outstanding papers explored this issue at "Mural Now" International Briefing, 30 November and 1 December 2017, Paul Mellon Centre, London: Rosie Ibbotson, "The Image in the Imperial Anthropocene: Landscape Aesthetics and Ecology Violence in Colonial Aotearoa New Zealand"; David Matless, "The Anthroposcenic: Mural Imagery in Erosion Time"; and Mark A. Cheetham, "Outside In: Reflections of British Landscape in the Long Anthropocene".
28 -
Thomas Cole to Robert Gilmor, 29 Jan 1832, Thomas Cole Papers, Manuscripts and Special Collections, New York Country Library, Albany, in Howard S. Merritt, "Studies on Thomas Cole, American Romanticist", special upshot of Baltimore Museum of Fine art Almanac ii (1967) 72.
29 -
Elizabeth Mankin Kornhauser and Tim Barringer, Thomas Cole's Journeying: Atlantic Crossings (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2018); and Tim Barringer, Gillian Forrester, Sophie Lynford, Jennifer Raab, and Nicholas Robbins, Picturesque and Sublime: Thomas Cole'south Trans-Atlantic Inheritance (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2018).
30
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